Technical resources

EN Steel Comparison Technical Supplement

A consolidated, single-page reference for the EN 10025 structural steel family (S235 – S500), with cross-material context for stainless steel and aluminium, design-standard mapping, live calculators and Fischer anchor design data — built for Singapore engineers, QPs and contractors.

Companion to the blog post: EN 10025 steel grades comparison for Singapore. Back to Metal Glass Work Singapore.

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Overview

EN 10025 is the European structural steel family covering grades from S235 through S500. Each grade is defined by its minimum yield strength in MPa at the reference thickness t ≤ 16 mm. This supplement consolidates yield, tensile, impact, weldability, design standards and cost data into a single reference for engineers, QPs and contractors working in Singapore.

S235 / S275

General construction grades. Yield 235 / 275 MPa at ≤16 mm. Excellent weldability (CEV ≤ 0.40). Used for purlins, secondary structures, light frames, light bridges.

S355

The workhorse high-strength structural steel. Yield 355 MPa, CEV ≤ 0.45. Suits high-rise, heavy bridges, plate girders, offshore — the most widely specified grade in Singapore commercial structures.

S420 / S460 / S500

High and ultra-high strength. Normalised (N), thermomechanical (M) or quenched-and-tempered (Q). Require strict preheat and low-hydrogen welding control. Long-span bridges, crane booms, offshore platforms.

Reference standards

EN 10025-2:2019 — Non-alloy structural steels (S235 / S275 / S355).
EN 10025-3:2019 — Normalised / normalised-rolled weldable fine-grain (N / NL).
EN 10025-4:2019 — Thermomechanical-rolled weldable fine-grain (M / ML).
EN 10025-6:2019 — Quenched and tempered flat products (Q / QL / QL1).
EN 1993-1-1 (Eurocode 3) — Design of steel structures (general rules).

Use note. All values are reproduced from published European norms and supplier ETA data. They are not a substitute for a project-specific design check. The final grade, sub-grade, sub-supplier and connection detail should be verified by the relevant QP, PE, consultant, supplier or authority where required.

Yield Strength

Minimum yield strength R_eH in MPa, by plate / product thickness band. Yield strength decreases with increasing thickness.

Thickness band (mm)	S235	S275	S355	S420	S460	S500
≤ 16	235	275	355	420	460	500
> 16 – 40	225	265	345	400	440	480
> 40 – 63	215	255	335	390	430	440
> 63 – 80	215	245	325	370	410	—
> 80 – 100	215	235	315	360	400	—
> 100 – 150	195	225	295	340	380	—
> 150 – 200	185	215	285	—	—	—
> 200 – 250	175	205	275	—	—	—

Source: EN 10025-2:2019 Table 7, EN 10025-3:2019 Table 7, EN 10025-4:2019 Table 7, EN 10025-6:2019 Table 5. S420 and S460 values shown are from EN 10025-3 (N/NL); EN 10025-2 and EN 10025-6 may give slightly different reductions.

Tensile Strength

Tensile strength R_m range (min – max), MPa, by thickness band.

Thickness (mm)	S235	S275	S355	S420	S460	S500
≤ 16	360 – 510	410 – 560	470 – 630	520 – 680	540 – 720	590 – 770
> 16 – 40	360 – 510	410 – 560	470 – 630	520 – 680	530 – 710	570 – 750
> 40 – 63	360 – 510	400 – 540	470 – 630	500 – 660	520 – 700	540 – 720
> 63 – 80	360 – 510	400 – 540	450 – 610	490 – 650	510 – 690	—
> 80 – 100	360 – 510	380 – 540	450 – 610	480 – 640	500 – 680	—
> 100 – 150	350 – 500	380 – 530	450 – 600	470 – 630	490 – 660	—
> 150 – 200	340 – 490	370 – 530	440 – 590	—	—	—
> 200 – 250	330 – 480	360 – 510	430 – 580	—	—	—

Source: EN 10025-2:2019 Table 8 and corresponding tables in -3, -4, -6.

Elongation at fracture (min %, A on L₀ = 5.65√S₀)

Thickness (mm)	S235	S275	S355	S420	S460	S500
≤ 16	26	23	22	19	17	17
> 16 – 40	26	23	22	19	17	17
> 40 – 63	24	22	21	18	17	16
> 80 – 100	22	21	20	17	17	—

Impact Properties

EN 10025 sub-grades define the Charpy V-notch (CVN) toughness — the energy absorbed by a notched bar at a given test temperature. Higher impact rating is required for cold service, dynamic / cyclic loading and seismic design.

Sub-grade designations

Sub-grade	Test temp.	Min energy	Interpretation	Applies to
JR	+20 °C	27 J	Room-temperature toughness — warm climates, general use	S235, S275, S355
J0	0 °C	27 J	Moderate cold toughness — cool temperate climates	S235, S275, S355, S420, S460
J2	−20 °C	27 J	Cold-weather toughness — Northern Europe, cyclic loading	S235, S275, S355, S420, S460
K2	−20 °C	40 J	Enhanced cold toughness — seismic, offshore	S355, S460
M / N	−20 °C	27 J	Thermomechanical / Normalised — fine-grain weldable	S420, S460, S500
ML / NL	−50 °C	27 J	Low-temperature variant — arctic, LNG, cryogenic	S420, S460, S500
Q	−20 °C	27 J	Quenched & Tempered — uniform high strength	S460, S500
QL	−40 °C	27 J	Q+T low-temperature — offshore, cold climates	S460, S500
QL1	−60 °C	27 J	Q+T extreme low-temperature	S460, S500

Sub-grade availability matrix

Sub-grade	Temp.	Energy	S235	S275	S355	S420	S460	S500
JR	+20 °C	27 J	✓	✓	✓	—	—	—
J0	0 °C	27 J	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	—
J2	−20 °C	27 J	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	—
K2	−20 °C	40 J	—	—	✓	—	✓	—
M / N	−20 °C	27 J	—	—	—	✓	✓	✓
ML / NL	−50 °C	27 J	—	—	—	✓	✓	✓
Q	−20 °C	27 J	—	—	—	—	✓	✓
QL	−40 °C	27 J	—	—	—	—	✓	✓
QL1	−60 °C	27 J	—	—	—	—	✓	✓

Singapore note. Outdoor steelwork in Singapore typically operates well above 0 °C. JR or J0 sub-grades are generally adequate for non-critical structures; J2 / K2 are commonly specified where cyclic, seismic, or low-temperature reliability is needed (e.g. cold rooms, refrigerated stores, plate-girder bridges).

Grade Comparison

Side-by-side comparison of the six EN 10025 grades across identification, mechanical, toughness, weldability and physical properties.

Property	S235	S275	S355	S420	S460	S500
Identification
Standard	EN 10025-2	EN 10025-2	EN 10025-2	-2 / -3 / -4	-2 / -3 / -4 / -6	-4 / -6
Yield (MPa, ≤16 mm)	235	275	355	420	460	500
CEV max (weldability index)	0.35	0.40	0.45	0.47	0.53	0.56
Yield strength R_eH (MPa)
t ≤ 16 mm	235	275	355	420	460	500
t > 16–40 mm	225	265	345	400	440	480
t > 40–63 mm	215	255	335	390	430	440
t > 63–80 mm	215	245	325	370	410	—
t > 80–100 mm	215	235	315	360	400	—
t > 100–150 mm	195	225	295	340	380	—
Tensile strength R_m (MPa)
t ≤ 16 mm	360–510	410–560	470–630	520–680	540–720	590–770
t > 16–40 mm	360–510	410–560	470–630	520–680	530–710	570–750
t > 40–63 mm	360–510	400–540	470–630	500–660	520–700	540–720
Elongation A (%, min)
t ≤ 16 mm	26	23	22	19	17	17
t > 40–63 mm	24	22	21	18	17	16
Charpy V-notch toughness
Available sub-grades	JR / J0 / J2	JR / J0 / J2	JR / J0 / J2 / K2	J0 / J2 / M/N / ML/NL	J0 / J2 / K2 / M/N / ML/NL / Q / QL / QL1	Q / QL / QL1 / M/N / ML/NL
Lowest available test temp.	−20 °C	−20 °C	−20 °C	−50 °C	−60 °C	−60 °C
Weldability
Preheat required	No (t ≤ 25 mm)	No (t ≤ 25 mm)	Possibly (t > 25 mm)	Yes (t > 20 mm)	Yes (always)	Yes (always)
Weldability rating	Excellent	Excellent	Good	Good	Moderate	Moderate
Physical properties (typical)
Density (kg/m³)	7850 (all grades)
Young's modulus E (GPa)	210 (all grades)
Poisson's ratio	0.30 (all grades)
Thermal expansion (×10⁻⁶ /°C)	12 (all grades)

Weldability

Carbon equivalent (CEV) governs cold-cracking susceptibility. The IIW formula used by EN 10025 is:

CEV = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15

EN 10025 carbon-steel weldability

Grade	CEV max	Weldability	Preheat (t ≤ 25 mm)	Preheat (t > 25 mm)	PWHT	Notes
S235	0.35	Excellent	None	None / slight	Not required	Suitable for all common arc processes
S275	0.40	Excellent	None	100 °C (t > 30 mm)	Not required	Good general weldability; preheat helps in cold conditions
S355	0.45	Good	None (t < 25 mm)	100–150 °C	Not required	Most versatile structural grade; preheat for thick sections
S420	0.47	Good	100 °C	150 °C	Consult spec	Fine-grain weldable; low-hydrogen consumables recommended
S460	0.53	Moderate	100–150 °C	150–200 °C	Sometimes	High strength — strict preheat & low H₂; avoid rapid cooling
S500	0.56	Moderate	150 °C	200 °C	Sometimes	Q+T steel — buttering runs recommended; tempering control critical

Stainless steel weldability

Grade	Type	Filler metal	Preheat	Interpass max	Back-purge	Key risks
SS304 (1.4301)	Austenitic	308L / 308LSi	None	150 °C	Recommended	Sensitisation (Cr-carbide at 425–850 °C)
SS316L (1.4404)	Austenitic	316L / 316LSi	None	150 °C	Recommended	Hot cracking in restrained joints
SS439 (1.4510)	Ferritic	309L / 309MoL	50–100 °C	150 °C	Required	HAZ grain coarsening / embrittlement
SS201 (1.4372)	Austenitic (Mn-N)	308L / 309L	None	150 °C	Recommended	Higher work-hardening, hot cracking

Source: EN 10025-2:2019 §6, EN 10088-1, AWS D1.6 Structural Welding — Stainless Steel.

Cross-Material Strength

Reference yield / proof strength, tensile, modulus and density across the three structural-material families used in Singapore: carbon steel (EN 10025), stainless steel (EN 10088) and aluminium alloy (EN 573-3 / EN 755).

Family	Grade / Alloy	Designation	Yield / proof (MPa)	R_m min (MPa)	R_m max (MPa)	Elong. (%)	E (GPa)	ρ (kg/m³)	Standard
Carbon Steel	S235	S235JR/J0/J2	235	360	510	26	210	7850	EN 10025-2 / EC3
Carbon Steel	S275	S275JR/J0/J2	275	410	560	23	210	7850	EN 10025-2 / EC3
Carbon Steel	S355	S355JR/J0/J2/K2	355	470	630	22	210	7850	EN 10025-2 / EC3
Carbon Steel	S420	S420N/M/NL/ML	420	520	680	19	210	7850	EN 10025-3/-4 / EC3
Carbon Steel	S460	S460N/M/Q/QL	460	540	720	17	210	7850	EN 10025-2/-3/-4/-6
Carbon Steel	S500	S500Q/QL/QL1	500	590	770	17	210	7850	EN 10025-6 / EC3
Stainless	SS304	1.4301 / X5CrNi18-10	210	520	720	45	200	7900	EN 10088-4 / EC3-1-4
Stainless	SS304L	1.4307 / X2CrNi18-9	200	500	700	45	200	7900	EN 10088-4 / EC3-1-4
Stainless	SS316	1.4401 / X5CrNiMo17-12-2	220	520	670	45	200	7980	EN 10088-4 / EC3-1-4
Stainless	SS316L	1.4404 / X2CrNiMo17-12-2	200	500	700	45	200	7980	EN 10088-4 / EC3-1-4
Stainless	2205 Duplex	1.4462 / X2CrNiMoN22-5-3	450	650	880	25	200	7800	EN 10088-4 / EC3-1-4
Aluminium	6082-T6 (≤12.5 mm)	EN AW-6082 T6	255	300	360	10	70	2700	EN 573-3 / EN 485-2 / EC9
Aluminium	6082-T6 (>12.5 mm)	EN AW-6082 T6	240	295	360	9	70	2700	EN 573-3 / EN 485-2 / EC9
Aluminium	6061-T6	EN AW-6061 T6	276	310	350	12	69	2700	ASTM B209 / EC9
Aluminium	5083-H111	EN AW-5083 H111	125	270	350	12	70	2660	EN 573-3 / EC9
Aluminium	6063-T6	EN AW-6063 T6	160	190	230	10	69	2690	EN 573-3 / EN 755-2 / EC9
Aluminium	7020-T6	EN AW-7020 T6	290	350	420	10	71	2780	EN 573-3 / EC9

Sources: EN 10025-2:2019 (carbon steel), EN 10088-4:2009 (stainless), EN 573-3 / EN 755-2 (aluminium), Eurocodes EN 1993-1-1, EN 1993-1-4, EN 1999-1-1.

Strength-to-Weight

Specific strength = (yield or 0.2 % proof) ÷ density, in MPa·m³/kg ×10⁻³. Specific stiffness = E ÷ density. Use this view to compare lightweight aluminium alloys against steel for weight-sensitive applications (façades, walkways, deck plates, transport).

Grade / Alloy	Family	Yield / proof (MPa)	ρ (kg/m³)	E (GPa)	Specific strength	Specific stiffness	Best use
S235	Carbon Steel	235	7850	210	29.9	26.8	General fab, secondary structure
S275	Carbon Steel	275	7850	210	35.0	26.8	Buildings, frames, light bridges
S355	Carbon Steel	355	7850	210	45.2	26.8	High-rise, heavy bridges, offshore
S460	Carbon Steel	460	7850	210	58.6	26.8	Long-span bridges, crane booms
S500	Carbon Steel	500	7850	210	63.7	26.8	Mining, ultra-heavy equipment
SS304	Stainless	210	7900	200	26.6	25.3	Architectural, handrails, façades
SS316	Stainless	220	7980	200	27.6	25.1	Coastal, marine, chemical plant
2205 Duplex	Stainless	450	7800	200	57.7	25.6	Offshore, desalination
6082-T6	Aluminium	255	2700	70	94.4	25.9	Walkways, decks, transport
6061-T6	Aluminium	276	2700	69	102.2	25.6	Structural profiles, aerospace
5083-H111	Aluminium	125	2660	70	47.0	26.3	Marine, cryogenic
7020-T6	Aluminium	290	2780	71	104.3	25.5	Defence, transport

Insight. Aluminium alloys give roughly 3× the specific strength of carbon steel, but with only 1/3 the specific stiffness. That makes aluminium attractive for weight-driven, deflection-tolerant designs (façade infill, walkway decks, transport), and unattractive for stiffness-driven designs (long beams, slender columns) without significantly larger sections.

Design Standards

How carbon steel, stainless steel and aluminium fit within the Eurocode framework and how their design rules differ in practice.

Governing standards

Topic	Carbon steel (EN 10025)	Stainless steel (EN 10088)	Aluminium (EN 573-3 / EN 755)
Structural design code	EC3 — EN 1993-1-1	EC3 — EN 1993-1-4 (supplementary to -1-1)	EC9 — EN 1999-1-1
Material specification	EN 10025-2/-3/-4/-6	EN 10088-1 to -5	EN 573-3 (composition) + EN 485-2, EN 755-2 (props)
Strength parameter	Yield strength R_eH	0.2 % proof R_p0.2	0.2 % proof R_p0.2 (f_o in EC9)
γ_M0	1.00	1.10	1.10
γ_M1	1.00	1.10	1.10
Stress-strain behaviour	Linear-elastic + plastic plateau	Non-linear (Ramberg-Osgood)	Non-linear, no yield plateau
Young's modulus	210 GPa	200 GPa	70 GPa (approx. 1/3 of steel)
Buckling curves	EC3 a–d	Modified curves in EN 1993-1-4	EC9-specific curves
Weld HAZ reduction	Not required	Not required (austenitic)	Required — ρ_haz per EC9 §6.1.6
Fire design	EN 1993-1-2	EN 1993-1-2	EN 1999-1-2
Fatigue	EN 1993-1-9	EN 1993-1-9 + SS detail cats	EN 1999-1-3
Corrosion protection	Required (paint, galvanise)	Not required (inherent)	Usually not required (anodise optional)

Critical design differences

Yield point / ductility. Carbon steel has a clear yield plateau — plastic design is allowed for Class 1 & 2 sections. Stainless and aluminium have no yield point; design is elastic with R_p0.2.
Buckling. Stainless requires modified curves due to a low proportional limit and residual-stress patterns. Aluminium uses different imperfection factors and tighter section-class limits.
Connections. Stainless requires A2 / A4 austenitic bolts. Aluminium needs oversize holes for thermal movement and isolation from steel to avoid bimetallic corrosion.
Thermal expansion. Carbon 12 ×10⁻⁶/°C, stainless 16–17.5, aluminium 23–24 — critical for long-span façades, bridges and restrained members.
Fire. Aluminium softens at ~200 °C — fire is the biggest weakness; intumescent or sprinkler protection is essential when required.
Equivalent section size. SS sections run ~25 % larger than carbon-steel equivalents at the same load. Aluminium sections run 2–3× larger because of low E.

Approximate equivalence (yield basis)

Carbon steel	Yield (MPa)	Nearest stainless	Nearest aluminium
S235	235	SS304 / SS316 (~210–220) — slightly lower	6063-T6 (~160) / 5083-H111 in tensile
S275	275	2205 Duplex (~450) — strongest common match above	6082-T6 plate (~255) / 6061-T6 (~276) closest
S355	355	2205 Duplex (~450) — no austenitic match	7020-T6 (~290) closest, but lower

Weight Calculator

Live in-page calculator. Pick a section, enter length and quantity to estimate total weight. Unit weights are typical published catalogue values; verify against your supplier's mill certificate before ordering.

Section Unit weight: 3.74 kg/m

Length (m) Quantity Loss factor (%)

Total weight3.93 kg

In tonnes0.004 t

Reference: TSA stainless catalogue, JYF mild-steel catalogue (sections), EN 10025 / EN 10210 / EN 10088. Unit weights are typical mill values — confirm with your supplier.

Cost Estimator

Material-cost reference for Singapore. Prices below are illustrative mid-range mill / stockist values per kg; confirm with your supplier at order. Use the calculator for a quick total.

Material	Grade	Indicative price (SGD/kg)	Density (kg/m³)	Yield (MPa)	Specific strength	Cost per MPa-yield	Relative cost (vs MS S275 = 1×)
Mild steel	S275JR	3.50	7850	275	35.0	0.0127	1.00×
Mild steel	S355JR	3.80	7850	355	45.2	0.0107	0.84×
Mild steel	S460	5.00	7850	460	58.6	0.0109	0.85×
Galvanised MS	S275 + Galv	4.50	7850	275	35.0	0.0164	1.29×
Stainless	SS304	8.50	7900	210	26.6	0.0405	3.18×
Stainless	SS316L	12.00	7980	220	27.6	0.0545	4.29×
Aluminium	6061-T6	8.00	2700	276	102.2	0.0290	2.28×
Aluminium	6082-T6	8.50	2700	260	96.3	0.0327	2.57×

Quick section cost

Unit weight (kg/m) Price (SGD/kg) Length (m)

Quantity Wastage (%) Fab uplift (%)

Material cost3,447 SGD

Total (incl. fab)5,515 SGD

Total weight907 kg

Pricing is indicative only. Real quotations depend on quantity, mill source, finish (galvanise / paint / passivation), fabrication complexity, on-site access and prevailing market conditions.

Platform Load Calc

Worked example: a typical access / maintenance platform sized to EN 1990 / EN 1991-1-1 (Eurocode 0 / 1) with downstream anchor bolt verification. Methodology summary follows the workbook source.

A · Platform definition (worked example)

Length L	6 m
Width W	3 m
Plan area A = L × W	18 m²
Number of support points n	4

B · Dead load (DL — self-weight)

Component	Unit weight	Area / length	Subtotal (kN)
Steel grating / checker plate floor	0.50 kN/m²	18 m²	9.0
Steel beams (UB / UC frame)	0.30 kN/m²	18 m²	5.4
Handrails + toe board	0.15 kN/m²	18 m²	2.7
Stairs / ladder (if any)	0.50 kN/m	1 m	0.5
Services / small piping	0.10 kN/m²	18 m²	1.8
Misc. (bolts, cleats)	0.05 kN/m²	18 m²	0.9
Total DL			20.3 kN

C · Live load (LL — imposed)

Load case (EN 1991-1-1)	Intensity	Area / length	Subtotal (kN)
General access platform (Cat. C)	3.0 kN/m²	18 m²	54
Industrial / maintenance (Cat. E)	5.0 kN/m²	18 m²	90
Heavy storage area	7.5 kN/m²	18 m²	135
Concentrated point load (Cat. C)	1.5 kN	—	1.5
Governing LL (Cat. C used)			54 kN

Apply only one live-load case at a time, taking the most onerous. Combine with dead load using EN 1990 partial factors (γG = 1.35 unfavourable, γQ = 1.50 unfavourable for ULS).

D · Quick reaction estimator

Plan area A (m²) DL intensity (kN/m²) LL intensity (kN/m²)

γG (DL factor) γQ (LL factor) Support points n

DL total20.3 kN

LL total54.0 kN

ULS total (γG·DL + γQ·LL)108.4 kN

Reaction per support (avg.)27.1 kN

Reminder. The reaction-per-support figure assumes uniform load sharing — real platforms rarely achieve that. Eccentricity, dynamic effects, hand-rail point loads, and base-plate prying must be analysed by the responsible PE / QP. Final anchor bolt selection and embedment depth must be verified against project-specific shear / tension demands and concrete grade.

Anchor Design

Mechanical anchors per Fischer ETA. Two of the most common Fischer families are summarised here; the workbook covers FBN II, FAZ II / II Plus, FIS V (chemical), FH II, FHB II, FZA Zykon and Nylon. Use only as a non-binding reference; the supplier's current ETA and software (Fischer C-Fix / FIXPERIENCE) is the binding source.

Fischer FBN II — Bolt Anchor (mechanical expansion)

ETA-07/0211 · Non-cracked concrete C20/25 to C50/60 · Fire R120 with restrictions. Drill Ø = thread Ø for tight fit.

Materials

Material	Designation	Corrosion class	Typical use
Zinc-plated steel	FBN II gvz	CRC I	Dry interior
Hot-dip galvanised	FBN II fvz	CRC III	Outdoor / wet (ETA-18/0101)
Stainless A4 (1.4401 / 316)	FBN II R	CRC III	External, façades, marine adjacency

Installation parameters

Thread	Drill Ø d₀ (mm)	h_ef std (mm)	h_ef red (mm)	Drill depth std (mm)	Torque gvz (Nm)	Torque A4 (Nm)	Wrench (mm)
M6	6	30	—	40	8	4	10
M8	8	40	30	46	15	10	13
M10	10	50	40	58	30	15	17
M12	12	65	50	85	50	35	19
M16	16	80	65	104	100	80	24
M20	20	105	80	135	200	150	30

Permissible tension N_perm (kN, non-cracked C20/25, single anchor, no edge / spacing reduction)

Thread	h_ef (mm)	gvz	A4
M8	40	6.1	6.1
M10	50	8.5	8.5
M12	65	12.6	12.6
M16	80	~18	~18
M20	105	~28	~28

Fischer FAZ II / FAZ II Plus — Through-Bolt

ETA-05/0069 (FAZ II) · ETA-19/0520 (FAZ II Plus) · Cracked + non-cracked concrete · Option 1 approval — suitable for cracked concrete, seismic C1 / C2 categories.

Thread	Drill Ø (mm)	h_ef min (mm)	h_ef max (mm)	Torque gvz (Nm)	Wrench (mm)
M8	8	35	90	15	13
M10	10	40	100	40	17
M12	12	50	125	60	19
M16	16	65	160	100	24
M20	20	85	200	200	30
M24	24	115	200	300	36

Engineer's note. Anchor capacity is governed by the lesser of steel failure (N_Rd,s), concrete cone (N⁰_Rd,c), splitting, and pull-out. Edge distance, anchor spacing and slab thickness all reduce the basic value. For real designs use Fischer's official software with the actual concrete grade, edge / spacing geometry and load combination, and check the result against the project's structural drawings and PE sign-off.

Read more in the related blog post: Wall anchors — Hilti vs Fischer bolt sizing for Singapore.

Glossary

Common abbreviations and technical terms used throughout this supplement.

Term	Full term	Notes
SHS	Square Hollow Section	Closed square profile
RHS	Rectangular Hollow Section	Closed rectangular profile
CHS	Circular Hollow Section	Round tube / pipe
OD / ID / WT	Outside / inside diameter, wall thickness	For pipes & round tubes
CEV	Carbon Equivalent Value	IIW: C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15
HAZ	Heat-Affected Zone	Zone next to weld where properties are altered
PWHT	Post-Weld Heat Treatment	Controlled heating to relieve residual stress
R_eH	Upper Yield Strength	Sharp yield in carbon steel (EN definition)
R_p0.2	0.2 % Proof Strength	Yield definition for SS / Al — 0.2 % offset
R_m	Tensile (ultimate)	Maximum stress before fracture
MPa	Megapascal	1 MPa = 1 N/mm²
kN	Kilonewton	1 kN = 1000 N ≈ 102 kgf
GPa	Gigapascal	1 GPa = 1000 MPa
EC3 / EC9	Eurocode 3 / Eurocode 9	EN 1993 (steel) / EN 1999 (aluminium)
γ_M0	Material partial safety factor	1.00 carbon steel; 1.10 SS / Al
ETA	European Technical Assessment	Product approval for anchors / fixings
FBN / FAZ	Fischer mechanical expansion anchors	Bolt anchor / through-bolt
FIS V	Fischer chemical (resin) anchor	Vinyl-ester injection mortar
JIS / EN / ASTM / BS	Standard families	Japanese / European / US / British

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Thread	Drill Ø d₀ (mm)	h_ef std (mm)	h_ef red (mm)	Drill depth std (mm)	Torque gvz (Nm)	Torque A4 (Nm)	Wrench (mm)
M6	6	30	—	40	8	4	10
M8	8	40	30	46	15	10	13
M10	10	50	40	58	30	15	17
M12	12	65	50	85	50	35	19
M16	16	80	65	104	100	80	24
M20	20	105	80	135	200	150	30

Thread	Drill Ø (mm)	h_ef min (mm)	h_ef max (mm)	Torque gvz (Nm)	Wrench (mm)
M8	8	35	90	15	13
M10	10	40	100	40	17
M12	12	50	125	60	19
M16	16	65	160	100	24
M20	20	85	200	200	30
M24	24	115	200	300	36

Thread	Drill Ø d₀ (mm)	h_ef std (mm)	h_ef red (mm)	Drill depth std (mm)	Torque gvz (Nm)	Torque A4 (Nm)	Wrench (mm)
M6	6	30	—	40	8	4	10
M8	8	40	30	46	15	10	13
M10	10	50	40	58	30	15	17
M12	12	65	50	85	50	35	19
M16	16	80	65	104	100	80	24
M20	20	105	80	135	200	150	30

Thread	Drill Ø (mm)	h_ef min (mm)	h_ef max (mm)	Torque gvz (Nm)	Wrench (mm)
M8	8	35	90	15	13
M10	10	40	100	40	17
M12	12	50	125	60	19
M16	16	65	160	100	24
M20	20	85	200	200	30
M24	24	115	200	300	36

Thread	Drill Ø d₀ (mm)	h_ef std (mm)	h_ef red (mm)	Drill depth std (mm)	Torque gvz (Nm)	Torque A4 (Nm)	Wrench (mm)
M6	6	30	—	40	8	4	10
M8	8	40	30	46	15	10	13
M10	10	50	40	58	30	15	17
M12	12	65	50	85	50	35	19
M16	16	80	65	104	100	80	24
M20	20	105	80	135	200	150	30

Thread	Drill Ø (mm)	h_ef min (mm)	h_ef max (mm)	Torque gvz (Nm)	Wrench (mm)
M8	8	35	90	15	13
M10	10	40	100	40	17
M12	12	50	125	60	19
M16	16	65	160	100	24
M20	20	85	200	200	30
M24	24	115	200	300	36